History: ARISTOTLE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

ARISTOTLE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

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ARISTOTLE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS

Aristotle is one of the most famous philosophers in the modern era due to his works on Nicomachean Ethics and Eudemian Ethics. In accordance with the Nicomachean Ethics (NE), Aristotle focused on the importance of ethics and virtues in the day-to-day lives of human beings. Books II-V ascribe to moral virtues whereas Book VI elucidates the concept of intellectual virtues. In this case, Aristotle argues that moral virtues are cultivated through habit and practice but intellectual virtues are acquired through instruction. Both categories of virtues are crucial when one wants to be categorized as a virtuous person. Although Aristotle makes a distinction between moral virtues and intellectual virtues, it will be discerned that possessing one virtue does not inherently require one to possess the other. Nonetheless, they are both mutually necessary in human beings.

            In order for one to discern the relationship between moral and intellectual virtues, it is recommended that one understands the distinction between the two. In essence, Aristotle defines intellectual virtues based on one’s excellence in performing their designated function through learning.[1] In contrast, moral virtues come about as the result of habit or practice. A virtuous person can thus be defined as one who possesses the intellectual virtue of phronesis which enhances the person’s ability to deliberate and moral virtues such as courage and justice among others. Joe Sachs defined phronesis as a practical judgment that allows someone to discern the right means to the right end in particular contexts.[2] Although phronesis and moral virtues are extremely different, they are mutually necessary.[3] Therefore, this explains why a virtuous person is said to embody both intellectual virtues as well as moral virtues regardless of the disparity between both classifications of virtues.

            Aristotle introduced Phronesis to show the interrelation of moral and intellectual virtues. Based on Nicomachean Ethics, phronesis can be defined as an intellectual virtue that is aligned with serving moral virtues.[4] With that said, it is evident that moral virtues require intellectual virtues to ensure maximum happiness in a person. Like most intellectual virtues, phronesis owes its conception to instruction and habituation. Early instruction on phronesis allows human beings to inculcate the right character and disposition towards world situations. Although phronesis can be utilized to alter preconceived moral dispositions, this undertaking will end up unsuccessful unless one has been trained to appreciate the significance of such alterations in character.[5] Through intellectual virtues, a person gains the ability to augment moral virtues in their character.

            Intellectual virtues such as phronesis have an intricate relationship with moral virtues. As long as a person has phronesis in full, then it is likely that he will have all the necessary moral virtues at his or her disposal. This is only possible because moral virtues are ultimately determined by phronesis.[6] Moral virtues in this case exclude inborn dispositions and natural virtues. Human beings are usually not born with moral virtues naturally ingrained in them since these values can only be acquired through habitual action. All human beings have a capacity for sophia – wisdom that allows one to deduce the most honorable action for a situation; nevertheless, this does not mean that everyone is suited to this intellectual virtue.[7] To sum up, a good philosopher is required to rely on virtues but there are a variety of factors that are just as essential.

            Virtues tend to be derived from different parts of the human soul. Aristotle in the Nicomachean Ethics divides the soul into the rational component and the nonrational component. In a broad sense, the rational part can be further divided into the scientific faculty and the calculative faculty.[8] On one hand, the scientific faculty perceives things that exist by necessity such that they are eternal; on the other hand, the calculative faculty enables one to grasp things that are changeable in nature. For that reason, intellectual virtues are said to belong to both segments of the rational soul whereas moral virtues belong to the rational segment.[9] The fact that moral virtues and intellectual virtues are both derived from the soul indicates that both classifications share an unbreakable connection.

            Moral and intellectual virtues are often derived as a result of enmeshing deliberation decisions from the head and the heart. The unity of virtues theory proposed by Aristotle highlights the separability of virtues where being in possession of phronesis allows one to gain all the moral virtues as well.[10] In simple words, one cannot have one phronesis without having the rest. Phronesis oversees all virtues in such a manner as to allow one to judge when and to what extent other virtues can be applied. However, this ideology is countered by the theory of reciprocity where a person with one proper virtue has the ability to gain every other virtue.[11] The reciprocity theory was labeled as the disunity of virtues theory since it inherently contradicts Aristotle’s unity of virtues hypothesis.

            Aristotle posited the reciprocity of virtues which explained why phronesis is necessary for moral virtues and vice versa. In this scenario, the possession of one virtue would inherently entail the possession of the other.[12] According to NE, the division of the soul into rational and irrational faculties justifies how desire results in moral and intellectual virtues. If desire differs because it is produced by different faculties, then it is accurate to deduce that the resulting virtues will also differ. However, it will be realized that desire is necessary for phronesis because it determines the correct faculty of the soul that enables deliberation. In the same way, phronesis is vital for identifying the right desire since it enables one to distinguish between good desires and detrimental desires.[13] With that said, moral virtues and intellectual virtues tend to rely on each other in accordance with the reciprocity of virtues.

            Human beings have been in pursuit of moral and intellectual values since the beginning of time. On acquisition, intellectual virtues will be oriented towards enabling human beings to think rationally while moral virtues will be aligned with allowing human beings to handle their desires and emotions in a rational manner.[14] As such, a good intellect can be created through education but moral goodness can only be acquired by training good human values. Nonetheless, practical wisdom is an intellectual virtue that cannot be gained by thought but by learning through experience. With that said, it is clear that acting in a virtuous manner does not necessarily indicate the excellence of the body, but the excellence of the soul.[15] In the end, education, habit, and experience are the most effective ways of gaining intellectual and moral virtues.

            An integral part of acquiring a virtuous character lies in one’s ability to clarify the relationship between actions and emotions. If the activities that are necessary to acquire moral virtues are indeed the very activities produced by exercising virtues, the dilemma becomes how one can engage in the right activities without exercising moral virtues.[16] Aristotle solves this dilemma by arguing that the solution is having the right orientation to emotions and their resulting actions. For that reason, the intellectual virtue of wisdom becomes the linchpin for a virtuous person’s ability to embody moral virtues. It is through wisdom and practical experience that human beings develop emotional responses and moral virtues that define their characters.

            The Nicomachean Ethics, argue that actions and emotions are often aligned with the mean. Therefore, determining the mean in a particular situation requires self-knowledge as well as the ability to accurately comprehend the practical context of the situation at hand.[17] Based on that supposition, it is apparent that moral actions are contingent on certain aspects of intellectual virtues that enable one to learn through practical experience. This hypothesis is supported by the ideology that intellectual virtues are gained through instruction whereas moral virtues are acquired by habit. Without practical experience and proper training in one’s disposition, moral virtues start to lose value in human life.[18] In a nutshell, certain aspects of moral virtues and intellectual virtues complement each other in human beings.

            The unbreakable connection between intellectual and moral virtues can be seen by understanding human choice. In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle stated “It is not possible to be good in the true sense without prudence, nor to be prudent without moral virtue”.[19] Hence, prudence becomes the cornerstone that represents the middle ground for human choices based on moral virtues and intellectual virtues. These human decisions can be categorized in accordance with whether they are “thoughts related to desire” or “desires related to thought”.[20] In reality, there are many individuals who can deliberate well without taking into consideration moral virtues. Similarly, numerous individuals make good moral choices without taking into account intellectual values. In brief, moral virtues and intellectual virtues are individually distinctive but they can be interrelated through prudent human choices.

            Instead of employing intellectual and moral virtues to

approach situations, one can take a middle course. In this case, moral goodness is seen as the middle course on account of it being the intermediate state between excess and deficiency.[21] This ideology is misleading since it is often difficult to find the middle point between emotions and actions. If a human being is given two distinct alternatives, then it will be difficult for that person to seek an intermediate state between those two options that will neither result in a state of deficiency nor a state of excess. For that reason, Aristotle proposed various rules that would allow human beings to act virtuous. In such cases, human beings are necessitated to avoid the extreme that will result in the most detrimental outcome for the situation.[22] Through this strategy, human beings will be capable of adhering to moral and intellectual goodness.

            For a philosopher to be called the happiest and most complete person in society, it is important for them to possess moral and intellectual virtues as well as other considerable goods. For instance, good birth and upbringing, good health, and a relatively long life.[23] In this case, it is important to understand that these other goods are not as important as moral and intellectual virtues. Accordingly, good birth and upbringing, good health, and relatively long life span are irrelevant to the acquisition of both categories of virtues. If that were the case, then people from poor family backgrounds and people with poor health would be incapable of portraying moral and intellectual values. Since that is not the case, it is clear that Liu’s suppositions are misleading. In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle stated that the other considerable goods are important only when enhancing the value of moral and intellectual virtues in human beings.[24] All in all, moral and intellectual virtues are both crucial facets of what makes up a virtuous philosopher.

            Aristotle attributes moral and intellectual virtues to a virtuous philosopher. Primarily, moral virtues are distinguished from intellectual virtues with respect to their rationality and non-rationality respectively. In spite of the diversity between both classifications of virtues, it will be realized that moral virtues inherently rely on intellectual virtues. Similarly, intellectual virtues can also depend on moral virtues. Based on this deduction, it is apparent that moral virtues and intellectual virtues can be combined to augment a person’s character and disposition. Even though moral virtues and intellectual virtues can be employed individually, combining the two virtues enables a person to become happier and more complete.

Bibliography

Deslauriers, Marguerite. “How to Distinguish Aristotle's Virtues”. Phronesis 47, No. 2

(2002): 101-126

Kristiansson, Kristjan. Aristotle, emotions, and education. Routledge, 2016.

Kucukuysal, Bahadır, and Erhan Beyhan. "Virtue ethics in Aristotle’s Nicomachean

ethics." Journal of Human Sciences 8, no. 2 (2011): 43-51.

Sachs, Joe, ed. Nicomachean Ethics. Hackett Publishing, 2011.

Liu, Wei. "An All-inclusive Interpretation of Aristotle’s Contemplative Life." Sophia 50, no.

1 (2011): 57-71.

London, Alex John. "Moral Knowledge and the Acquisition of Virtue in Aristotle's"

Nicomachean" and" Eudemian Ethics"." The Review of Metaphysics 54, No. 3, (2001): 553-583.

Solopova, Maria A. "Aristotle on the Intellectual Virtues: On the Meaning of the Notions of

Consideration and Consideration for Others in Nicomachean Ethics." Russian Studies in Philosophy 54, no. 6 (2016): 519-534.

[1] Kristjan Kristiansson. Aristotle, emotions, and education. Routledge, 2016, 15.

[2] Joe Sachs, ed. Nicomachean Ethics. Hackett Publishing, 2011, 209.

[3] Marguerite Deslauriers. “How to Distinguish Aristotle's Virtues”. Phronesis 47, No. 2 (2002), 102.

[4] Kristjan Kristiansson. Aristotle, emotions, and education. Routledge, 2016, 166

[5] Ibid., 167

[6] Wei Liu. "An All-inclusive Interpretation of Aristotle’s Contemplative Life." Sophia 50, no. 1 (2011), 65.

[7] Ibid., 59

[8] Maria A. Solopova. "Aristotle on the Intellectual Virtues: On the Meaning of the Notions of Consideration and Consideration for Others in Nicomachean Ethics." Russian Studies in Philosophy 54, no. 6 (2016), 520.

[9] Kristjan Kristiansson. Aristotle, emotions, and education. Routledge, 2016.

[10] Ibid., 17

[11] Ibid., 102

[12] Marguerite Deslauriers. “How to Distinguish Aristotle's Virtues”. Phronesis 47, No. 2 (2002), 103.

[13] Marguerite Deslauriers. “How to Distinguish Aristotle's Virtues”. Phronesis 47, No. 2 (2002), 112.

[14] Bahadır Kucukuysal and Erhan Beyhan. "Virtue ethics in Aristotle’s Nicomachean ethics." Journal of Human Sciences 8, no. 2 (2011), 46.

[15] Ibid., 46

[16] Alex John London. "Moral Knowledge and the Acquisition of Virtue in Aristotle's" Nicomachean" and" Eudemian Ethics"." The Review of Metaphysics 54, No. 3, (2001), 566.

[17] Alex John London. "Moral Knowledge and the Acquisition of Virtue in Aristotle's" Nicomachean" and" Eudemian Ethics"." The Review of Metaphysics 54, No. 3, (2001), 583.

[18] Ibid., 576

[19] Maria A. Solopova "Aristotle on the Intellectual Virtues: On the Meaning of the Notions of Consideration and Consideration for Others in Nicomachean Ethics." Russian Studies in Philosophy 54, no. 6 (2016), 530.

[20] Ibid., 530

[21] Bahadır Kucukuysal and Erhan Beyhan. "Virtue ethics in Aristotle’s Nicomachean ethics." Journal of Human Sciences 8, no. 2 (2011): 50.

[22] Kristjan Kristiansson. Aristotle, emotions, and education. Routledge, 2016.

[23] Wei Liu. "An All-inclusive Interpretation of Aristotle’s Contemplative Life." Sophia 50, no. 1 (2011): 69.

[24] Wei Liu. "An All-inclusive Interpretation of Aristotle’s Contemplative Life." Sophia 50, no. 1 (2011): 69.